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A catch-all term intended to include any form of paper mechanism that causes elements to lift automatically from the surface of the pages as a book is opened. At its simplest, a V-folded piece, partially attached across a double-spread, springs up over the centre-fold when opened. More complicated actions, involving sliding armatures, levers, joints and pivots (all made of light card) can raise many layers and over-lays to give rich dimensional effects. Some incorporate built-in movements - and even sound effects, such as card scratching a serrated edge to represent the creaking of a door.

Between the simplest and the most complicated, there are an almost infinite number of combinations and permutations that embrace many of the recent books that we think of as pop-ups. In the last few years an American designer, Robert Sabuda, has produced a brilliant and innovative series of fold outs of which 'The Twelve Days of Christmas' (Simon & Schuster, NY, 1996) is outstanding.

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